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COMMON
TYPES OF SCALE IN PLUMBING SYSTEMS
The two most common forms of scale consist mainly of:
1. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) (with binders).
This forms in hot water heaters, boilers, valves, sinks, shower enclosures,
etc.
2. Rust (in galvanized pipes) or corrosion (in/on copper, brass, aluminum,
or chrome).
In order to understand the process by which the catalytic alloy conditioner
inhibits scale buildup (commonly called "lime" or "rust") and the way
in which it breaks down and eliminates existing scale, it is necessary
to understand the nature of scale and how it is formed.
The Nature of Calcium Carbonate and Magnesium Carbonate Scale (with Binders)
Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, exists in nature as limestone and marble. Silica
(SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and calcium sulfate (CaSO4) are principal impurities
in limestone and function as binders (cementing agents).
Large deposits of magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, exist in nature with calcium
carbonate in the form of dolomite, CaCO3 . MgCO3, or as magnesite, MgCO3.
Limestone layers even in high mountainous regions such as the Grand Canyon
in Arizona, which has a depth of over one mile, were each formed over
millions of years from remains of sea creatures precipitated to the bottom
of the ocean where the CaCo3 contained in these remains combined with
silica (SiO2), alumina (A12O3), and/or clay (SiO2 . A1203 . 2 H2O), which
serve as binders.
In addition, limestone usually includes some MgCO3. In the case of the
Grand Canyon, scientists have identified at least seven different limestone
layers, each containing shells of marine animals, indicating that the
region has been covered by at least seven different oceans in its geological
history. CaCo3 is only very slightly soluble in water, yet large amounts
of calcium become dissolved in most water supplies by the action of rain
water on limestone.
Rain water is somewhat acidic because as it falls through the atmosphere,
it encounters carbon dioxide (CO2) with which it reacts to form carbonic
acid (H2CO3) as follows: H2O + CO2 -> H2CO3 When rain water contacts limestone
in the earth, limestone material is dissolved and goes into solution as
calcium bicarbonate as follows: CaCo3 + H2CO3 -> Ca2+ + 2 HCO- The carbonic
acid ionizes slightly: H2CO <-----> H+ + HCO3 Since the ionization constant
of HCO3- is very small, [H+] x [CO3 2-] KI = [HCO3-] The addition of H+
ions from the carbonic acid reduces the concentration of CO32- (ions that
go into solution in the water from the CaCO3 solid) because the H+ ion
and the CO32- ion combine to form the slightly ionized bicarbonate ion,
HCO3-.
The reduction of the concentration of the CO32- ion in the solution causes
more CaCO3 to dissolve in the form of Ca2+ + 2 HCO3- in an attempt to
saturate the solution and produce a product of the concentrations of Ca2+
and CO32- ions that equals the solubility product. [Ca2+] x [ CO32-] =
Ksp = 1 x 10-9 at 25oC Surface waters also dissolve carbon dioxide from
soils where it is produced by the slow oxidation and decay of organic
materials.
As these waters contact limestone, the limestone gradually dissolves.
Examples of this action are limestone caves and hard waters from wells.
The Ca2+ + 2 HCO3- that is dissolved in water very readily converts into
CaCO3 when water is heated to boiling. The solubility of CaCO3 decreases
with increase in temperature and precipitates as CaCO3 as follows: heat
Ca2+ + 2 HCO3- -----> CaC03 + H2O + C02 This is the basic reaction that
forms the bulk of the 'lime' in water heaters and boilers.
This reaction also occurs when water containing Ca(HCO3)2 evaporates and
leaves a CaCO3 residue. The above mentioned reactions also apply to magnesium
and its bicarbonates and carbonates. For example: MgCO3 + H2CO3 ----->
Mg2+ + 2 HCO3- However, MgCO3 is appreciably more soluble than CaCO3.
[Mg2+] x [CO32-] = Ksp = 1 x 10-5 at25oC Scientists and engineers who
have investigated scale formation in various industrial systems have determined
that although CaCO3 and MgCO3 form most of the mass of lime-type scale,
they require silica (SiO2), alumina (Al203), or calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
to act as a binder to hold them in place just as they do in nature. CaSO4
exists in ionized form when dissolved in water as the ions Ca2+ and So42
.
The solubility of CaSO4 increases with temperature up to about 100oF and
then decreases with increasing temperature. Hence, precipitation of CaSO4
also occurs in water heaters and boilers. SiO2 and Al2O3 are not ions
but are relatively neutral colloidal residues that are slightly soluble
in water. SiO2 is found in fresh water in a range of 1 -100mg/liter.
At high concentrations (over 50 mg/liter), chemical precipitation appears
to occur. Colloids, including SiO2, Al2O3, and clay (SiO2 . Al2O3 . 2
H2O), when suspended in water usually carry a negative charge. If these
negative charges (extra electrons) are neutralized (extra electrons removed),
the colloids coagulate, precipitate, and combine with (i.e., become absorbed
by) CaCO3, MgCO3, and CaSO4 to form typical lime scale.
The denseness and hardness of the scale increases with increased concentrations
of SiO2, Al2O3, and/or CaSO4. Approximately 87 percent of the earth's
solid crust consists of silicon compounds. Silica is one of the most abundant
compounds of silicon. Aluminum is the most abundant metal and the third
most abundant element. The most important ore of aluminum is bauxite,
a mixture of hydrated aluminum oxide, Al2O3 . 3 H2O, and iron oxide.
Calcium is fifth in abundance of the metals in the earth's crust, of which
it forms more than 3 percent. How the Catalytic Alloy Conditioner Functions
to Prevent Lime Scale Formation and to Dissolve Existing Scale The catalytic
alloy conditioner consists of many precious and semiprecious metals that
form a special electrochemical catalyst.
In addition, the core includes multiple venturis configured to prevent
flow restriction while providing a high degree of turbulence and increased
physical contact between: (1) the ions and molecules in the water; and
(2) the core itself, thereby increasing catalytic efficiency. Why the
Core Acts as a Catalyst All metals give up electrons in their outer atomic
shells easily. For this reason, metals are good or excellent electrical
conductors.
Of all non-radioactive metals, cesium is the least electron acquisitive;
it has an-electronegativity of 0.7 on the Electronegativity Scale of the
Elements. Gold is the most electron-acquisitive of the metals and has
an electronegativity of 2.4 on the Electro negativity Scale. The higher
the electronegativity, the more acquisitive the element (atom) is concerning
electrons for its outer shell to satisfy its own valence.
The most aggressive (electron-acquisitive) elements are all non-metals:
ELEMENT AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY: Fluorine 4.0; Oxygen 3.5; Chlorine
3.0; Nitrogen 3.0; Bromine 2.8; Carbon 2.5; Sulfur 2.5; Iodine 2.5; Selenium
2.4
The least aggressive (electron-acquisitive) elements are metals and include:
ELEMENT AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY: Gold 2.4: Hydrogen 2.1; Silver 1.9;
Copper 1.9; Silicon 1.9; Nickel 1.8 Cadmium 1.7; Zinc 1.6; Tantalum 1.5;
Aluminum 1.5; M anganese 1.5; Magnesium 1.2; Calcium 1.0; Strontium 1.0;
Lithium 1.0; Sodium 0.9; Barium 0.9; Radium 0.9; Rubidium 0.8; Potassium
0.8; Cesium 0.7
Other common elements range in electronegativity between these high and
low groups. The greater the separation of two elements on the Electronegativity
Scale, the greater is the strength of the bond between these two elements.
Relative Electronegativities of the Catalytic Alloy Conditioner and the
Water Solution The electronegativity of the core alloy is less than the
overall electronegativity of the water solution. Therefore, the core loses
(gives up) more electrons than it acquires to elements such as hydrogen
(H+) ions which have an electronegativity of 2.1 and to ionic compounds
(radicals) such as SO42- and CO32- which have higher electronegativities
than the core alloy.
The relatively large distances between the nucleus and the electrons of
atoms have been described as follows: If an atom were as large as a house,
its nucleus (which is positively charged) would be about the size of the
period at the end of this sentence, or a pin head, and its outer-shell
electron orbits would be out where the walls of the house are.
The electrons (which are negatively charged) would be smaller than specks
of dust that float in the air. When bonded with another atom(s), the outer
orbital shell is pulled out into an egg shape even beyond the boundaries
of the walls of the house because of the attraction of the other atom(s).
When water is in the form of ice, the molecules and ions in it are held
in a relatively rigid pattern.
But in the liquid state, this structure becomes a dynamic, whirling, chaotic
dance in which groups of molecules and ions in the solution take turns
whirling about one another, breaking their bonds, and finding new groups
to find partners with. When water rushes through the catalytic alloy conditioner,
the pattern becomes even more frenetic; and electron orbits and associated
bondings undergo increased perturbations and stresses, and additional
electrons from the core are attracted into the water solution.
Verifiability of the Relative Electronegativities of the Core and the
Water Solution The loss of electrons by the catalytic alloy condiotioner
to the water solution is easily verifiable by: (1) adapting a catalytic
alloy conditioner to a garden hose; (2) turning on the hose faucet; (3)
connecting the positive lead of a multimeter to the conditioner core;
(4) inserting the negative lead probe into the water stream; and (5) observing
a voltage drop.
The fact that the conditioner goes positive with respect to the outlet
water stream indicates that electrons are being removed from the catalytic
alloy conditioner by the water solution as it flows through the core.
THE ELECTROMOTIVE SERIES
The electronegativities of various elements were listed to previously
to indicate their relative potentials or dispositions regarding electron
acquisitiveness. Electron acquisitiveness can be regarded as "reduction
potential."
Reduction of an element occurs when its valence becomes more negative
(or less positive); for example, in the reaction e-+ Cl2 + H2O <----->
HOCl- + Cl- + H+ one atom of Cl2 is reduced to Cl-. Oxidation, which is
the opposite of reduction, occurs to an element when its valence becomes
more positive (or less negative); for example, in the reaction 2 Cl- -->
Cl2 + 2e- 2 Cl- is oxidized to 2 Clo to provide chlorine gas plus two
electrons which are available (or can be made available) for reduction
of another substance in the solution or circuit.
The Electromotive Series is a listing of elements and compounds rank-ordered
according to their oxidation potentials or dispositions regarding electron
relinquishment (or their tendency to lose electrons). The higher or more
positive the oxidation potential of an element, the better the element
is as a reducing agent. The following is a partial listing of the Electromotive
Series.
OXIDATION POTENTIAL (VOLTS) AT 1 MOLE CONCENTRATION
Lio --> LI+ + e (+3.05); Cao --> Ca2+ 2e (+2.76); Nao --> Na+ + e- (+2.71);
Mgo --> Mg2++ 2e- (+2.37); Alo --> Al3+ + 3e (+1.66); Zno --> Zn2+ + 2e-
(+0.76); Feo --> Fe2+ + 2e- (+0.4 4) H2 + 2 H2O --> 2 H3O+ 2e- (0.0) Cuo
--> Cu2+ + 2e- (-0.34); 2I- --> I2 + 2e- (-0.54); Ago --> Ag+ + e- (-0.80);
Hgo --> Hg2+ 2e- (-1.09); 6 H2O --> O2 + 4 H3O + 4e- (-1.23); 2 Cl- -->
Cl2 + 2e- (-1.36); 2 F- --> F2 + 2e- (-2.87)
The Electromotive Series and the Electronegativity listings provide fundamental
frames of reference and some insight into: (1) the many ways in which
the elements can interact with each other; (2) why they interact as they
do; (3) under what conditions changes or reactions will occur or will
not occur; and (4) the reasons that metals can function as catalytic water
conditioning agents.
The Addition of Electrons to the Water Solution and Their Effects on Scale
Electrons are drawn into the water solution because the solution contains
ions that are more electronegative than the catalytic alloy core is. Or
in terms of the Electromotive Series, the catalytic alloy conditioner
core contains elements which have higher oxidation>n potentials than ions
in the water solution. As the water flows through the catalytic alloy
coditioner, some of the electrons drawn into the solution displace some
already captured by ions such as CO32-, HCO3-, SO42-, and OCI- during
the turbulent orbitings of the various electrons.
This allows the "displaced" electrons to become "free electrons" in the
solution and these "free electrons" can be captured by ions or colloids
with lesser electronegativities such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ to free themselves
of CO32-, SO42-, and HCO3-, and assume their neutral atomic structures
(Cao and Mgo) and break away from their ionic bonds while in solution
or from lattice scale bonds in cases where they arc in solid precipitated
or scale form.
The inbonds in cases where they are in solid precipitated or scale form.
The increased electron count in the water also inhibits the breakdown
of the bicarbonate ion into H+ and CO32- when heater in water heaters
and boilers or when alkalinity reaches Levels above pH 8.4. By acquiring
or reacquiring a negative charge, colloidal substances such as silica,
alumina, and rust particles remain in suspension instead of becoming absorbed
onto calcium, magnesium, and iron ions; the acquisition of the negative
charge also causes these colloidal substances to be repelled from these
ions in the flowing water if they were already absorbed onto them.
This separation inhibits the hardness effects of these three ions; hardness
in water is always due to the presence of Ca+, Mg2+, and/or Fe2+ ions.
The silica and alumina are also able to escape from existing scale lattices
to which they have been absorbed and for which they have been functioning
as finders. Thus, the scale lattices are gradually broken down and eliminated
by the escaping Cao and Mgo elements and negatively charged SiO2(-) and
A12O3(-) colloids.
The inhibiting effects of the catalytic alloy conditioner on scale formation
can be summarized as follows: (1) Ca2+ + 2e---> Cao ; (2) Mg2+ + 2e--->
Mgo ; (3) xSiO2 + xe- --> xSiO2(-); (4) xAl2O3 +xe---> xAl2O3 (-); (5)
xFe2O3 + xe---> xFe2O3 (-); (6) 2 HCO-3 + xe- heat>-> 2 HCO-3 + xe- (inhibition
of the CO32- + H2O + CO2 reaction) The inhibiting effects in heaters and
boilers can be summarized as follows: (7) Cao + 2 HCO3- heat_> Ca_ + H2O
+ 2 CO2 (8) 2 CO32- heat_> 2 CO2 + O2 + 4e- (9) 2 HCO-3 + xe- heat_>2
HCO-3 + xe- (inhibition of the CO32- + H2O + CO2 reaction) (10) Al203
(-) + SiO2(-) heat_> Al2O3- + Si02(-) (remain in suspension as colloids)
(11) Cao + SO42- heat_> Cao + S042- (precipitation of CaSO4 is inhibited)
(12) Fe2O3(-) heat_> Fe2O3(-) (Remains in suspension as a colloid)
The scale dissolving effects in water heaters, boilers, pipes, valves,
and other plumbing or agricultural irrigation components are summarized
by the following simplified equation:
(13) CaCO3 . CaSO4 . SiO2 . MgCO3 . A12O3 . Fe2O3 + 9e- ----> 2 Cao +
Mgo + 2 CO32- + SO42- + SiO2(-) + Al2O3 (-) + Fe2O3(-)
The acquisition of one or two electrons by a calcium ion (Ca2+) will immediately
cause other substances to bond with it. A typical reaction is: (14) q
Cao + r Ca(+) + s H2O --> t Ca(OH)2 + u Ca(OH)+ + v H+, where the H+ and
OH- ions are derived from H2O molecules. The H+ ions arc very useful in
the breaking down of calcium carbonate. If small or weak concentrations
of the hydrogen ions are added to the water solution, carbonate ions are
removed by the formation of bicarbonate ions. (15) H+ CO32- --> HCO3-
The bicarbonate ions are then decomposed by the hydrogen ions as follows:
(16) H+ HCO3- --> H2O + CO2 The Ca(OH)+ formed in equation (14) will probably
bond with an electronegative ion or radical, or with a colloid with a
negative charge, but will probably remain in solution instead of forming
part of a precipitate. The Ca(OH)2 formed in equation (14) tends to precipitate
but its solubility is approximately 40 times greater than that of CaCO3.
Hence, in view of the relatively slow rates at which the Cao and Ca(+)
is formed, and the proportionally slow rates at which the Ca(OH)2 are
formed, it is highly unlikely the concentration of Ca(OH)2 in water heaters
and boilers (and even in cold water circuits) will reach levels where
precipitation will occur.
The solubility of Ca(OH)2 at 100oC is 0.77 gram per liter; for CaCO3 it
is 0.0190 gram per liter at 75oC. At 25oC the solubility of Ca(OH)2 is
1.85 grams per liter; for CaCO3 it is 0.0153 gram per liter at 25oC. Conditioned
water that has dried on surfaces exposed to air will leave water spots
due to the minerals in the water Oust as soft water conditioners will
leave sodium spots), but these spots are easily removed with a damp cloth
and do not leave hard water stains.
This is due to the neutralization of the scale binders and the calcium
and magnesium as indicated in equations (1) through (5) above. In zeolite
water softeners, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in the water are exchanged for Na+
ions (absorbed onto the zeolite) that are released and rush into the water
solution as the water passes through the zeolite. Interestingly, zeolite
consists of an aluminum-silicon-oxygen compound to which Ca and Mg are
absorbed until flushed away during the recharging cycle while the catalytic
alloy conditioner supplies negative charges to SiO2 and Al2O3 colloids
in order to keep them in suspension and to keep them from becoming absorbed
onto calcium and magnesium compounds and functioning as scale binders.
Cao and Mgo readily oxidize in air to form CaO, MgO, Ca3N2, and Mg3N2,
but these compounds are easily wiped off.
The thin, waxy, shiny, protective, water-repellent finish that forms and
is noticeable on chrome and mirrors after the catalytic alloy conditioned
water is wiped off of these surfaces is a combination of various forms
of calcium and magnesium compounds together with colloidal alumina and
silica and is a welcome by-product of the conditioner.
The Insulating Effects of Water Water (H2O) molecules are excellent electrical
insulators; and for this reason, at the low-voltage levels at which these
catalytic actions and reactions occur, most of the electrons that are
transferred from the catalytic alloy conditioner to the ions and colloids
in the water remain in the solution instead of escaping back to earth
ground.
Consequently, most of the additional electrons transferred from earth
ground via the conditioner core to the water solution stay in the solution
and are able to provide the negative charges necessary for preventing
scale from forming and for decomposing existing scale.
The Effects of the Negatively Charged Colloids on External Surfaces and
Wash Water Another important benefit resulting from the negative charging
of the colloidal substances such as silica, alumina, and clay is that
these substances form a negatively charged microscopic coating on surfaces
such as glass, windows, chrome, porcelain, tile, enamel, lacquer, etc.
This coating becomes very evident on surfaces such as mirrors and chrome
faucets, on which residue from evaporated water is easily wiped off with
a damp cloth, leaving a sparkling, wax-like, polished surface finish as
mentioned in Section 3.5. Other examples of the effects of these negatively
charged colloids is the way toilet bowls stay "ring free" and the way
shower enclosures stay cleaner much longer.
In addition to these effects on external surfaces, the increased negativity
provided to water solutions keeps soap scum particles in colloidal suspension
in the water, inhibiting precipitation of soap scum and formation of "bathtub
ring" when regular soap is used instead of detergent-type soap such as
Zest. Detergents do not react with calcium to form soap scum but do leave
residues with unconditioned waters.
Scum and residue that do collect on bathtub or other surfaces are very
easily rinsed off with fresh water and also easily go back into colloidal
suspension in the same water when the water is splashed on the scum or
residue before it is allowed to dry. The Wetter Water Effect Another effect
and benefit of the additional electrons in the water solution is the reduction
in hydrogen bonding between H2O molecules. H2O molecules link up to each
other because of the dipole nature of the individual H2O molecules.
The additional negative charges in the solution reduce the bonding of
the oxygen atoms of H2O molecules and the hydrogen atoms of other H2O
molecules (i.e., hydrogen atoms other than those in their own molecules)
by supplying the negative charges (electrons) that the oxygen atoms attract.
As a result, there are less hydrogen bonds between the individual H2O
molecules. This results in "wetter water," which in turn results in better
cleaning water and better soil-leaching water.
The breaking up of the H2O groupings into smaller groupings, because of
the decrease in hydrogen bonding, enables soap and detergent to break
up into smaller groupings and interface with the smaller H2O groupings.
This results in a greatly increased surface area that can come in contact
with grease, oil, dirt, and other contaminants in wash water. The surface
area increases exponentially with decreases in the size of the groupings.
Consequently, soap, detergents, and shampoos become more efficient and
considerably less amounts are required when used with the conditioned
water.
Typically, people who require two shampooings with unconditioned water
require only one shampooing with the conditioned water. The wetter water
also penetrates soil better and faster than unconditioned water. In addition,
the increased wetness is supplemented by the salt and scale-dissolving
properties of the electron rich water. This results in more effective
breaking down and leaching away of the salts accumulated in the soil.
Excessive salinity in the root zones in the soil is the primary cause
of tip burn in plant and tree leaves. The excessive amounts of salts on
and around the roots result in oxidation and reduction reactions that
cause certain elements and compounds to be over-absorbed by plant roots
and others, that are required for normal health, to be under-absorbed
or not absorbed at all. Boiling Characteristics of Conditioned Water Versus
Nonconditioned Water All other things being equal, the decrease in surface
tension due to the decrease in hydrogen bonding of the water molecules
reduces the boiling point of water.
However, microwave oven tests conducted on equal amounts of conditioned
and unconditioned water sometimes show that the boiling point of the conditioned
water sample is higher than that of the unconditioned water sample. This
apparent paradox can be explained when it is remembered that the gaseous
content of the conditioned water is reduced by the catlytic alloy conditioner.
This can result in an increase in the molecular weight of the water for
the given volume.
According to the van der Waals Attraction Principle, which is used to
explain differences in boiling points of different substances, normal
molecular substances with larger molecular weight have higher boiling
points than those with smaller molecular weight. However, after the unconditioned
water is boiled and most of its gases are driven out by the heating, its
boiling point will usually be higher because its hydrogen bonding is greater
than that of the conditioned water.
Results can also vary if the conditioned and the unconditioned water samples
are drawn from different homes on the same street and have different amounts
of dissolved solids, as when a catalytic alloy conditioner has been installed
and in use in a home for several weeks and has reduced the amount of solids
in the water sample contributed by the scale in the plumbing in the house.
In any event, conditioned water characteristically boils in a steadier,
smoother pattern with smaller, more uniform-sized bubbles than does unconditioned
water, thereby demonstrating another effect that decreased hydrogen bonding
has on water.
Removal of Chlorine and Other Gaseous Substances from Water
Every metal surface contains many small anodes and cathodes. These
opposite-polarity sites are caused by: (1 ) surface irregularities resulting
from forming, extruding, casting, or other fabrication processes; (2)
stresses from welding, forming, or other operations; and/or (3) differences
in the materials of which the metal or alloy is composed. Because the
core alloy of the SafeWater Softener consists of many different metals
specially proportioned and processed, and because the core is formed by
casting and has relatively rough surfaces, the quantity and power of the
anodic and cathodic points have been maximized by the above-mentioned
causes (1) and (3).
The conditioner core contains thousands of cathodes which supply electrons
to positively charged ions in the water (such as H+) but also contains
thousands of anodes that remove electrons from negative ions such as Cl-,
allowing them to gather together as neutral gases such as Cl2. However,
more electrons are supplied by the core to the water solution than are
removed from the solution because the core, being metallic, is more electropositive
than is the water solution.
The anodes and cathodes on certain metal surfaces also cause anodic and
cathodic reactions that result in typical rusting or corrosion of these
surfaces in plumbing systems. However, the conditioner core alloy is nonferrous
and highly resistant to rusting and corrosion. The turbulence resulting
from the water rushing through the conditioner core facilitates the removal
of gases by increasing the probabilities of gaseous elements such as Clo
and No contacting other like elements and forming Cl2 gas and N2 gas,
respectively.
It should be noted that Cl2 (chlorine gas) is 2.49 times as heavy as air,
however, and therefore will not rise up into the air at ordinary temperatures.
For this reason, chlorine can more easily be smelled in a container only
partly filled with chlorinated water conditioned by a catalytic conditioner
than in the case where the container is filled with the water to overflowing.
How Rust and Corrosion are Inhibited and Dissolved by the SafeWater Softener
Rust is a type of corrosion involving the special case of iron. Rust formation
requires three electrochemical steps: 1. Loss of metal occurs at the anodic
area (anode) of the surface. In the case of iron, iron (Feo) is lost to
the water solution and becomes oxidized to Fe2+ ion. 2. As a result of
the formation of Fe2+, two electrons are released from the Fe atom and
flow through the steel to a cathodic area (cathode). 3. Oxygen (O2) in
the water solution moves to the cathode and completes the electric circuit
by using the two electrons that moved to the cathode to form hydroxyl
ions (OH-) at the cathode area.
The reactions are as follows: (1) Anodic reaction: Feo --> Feo + 2e (2)
Cathodic reaction: 1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e---> 2(0H-) (3) or e- + H+ --> Ho
If oxygen is absent, hydrogen ions (H+) participate in the reaction (equation
(3) at the cathode instead of oxygen and completes the electrical circuit).
The Fe2+ and OH- ions combine to form ferrous hydroxide as follows: (4)
Fe2+ + 2 OH- --> Fe(OH)2 Rust is formed when Fe(OH)2 is oxidized: (5)
2 Fe(OH)2 + 1/2 O2 --> Fe2O3 . 2 H2O Corrosion is inhibited if the iron
is made more negative compared to its surroundings, forcing the anode
areas to act as cathodes. This is accomplished by the attraction of some
of the extra electrons in the water solution (supplied by the conditioner)
onto the anodic areas, thereby preventing the ionization of the Fe atoms.
The additional electrons also dissolve rust by breaking it into fine colloidal
particles.
In a similar manner, corrosion is also inhibited and dissolved for metals
other than iron such as brass and aluminum. It is interesting to note
that the addition of electrons to anodic areas in order to prevent corrosion
has been accomplished by other means in industry. This method has been
called "cathodic protection." Zinc plating is one example of this method
of cathodic protection since zinc has a higher oxidation potential than
iron and forces electrons onto the iron. Cathodic protection has also
been obtained by driving stakes of magnesium or zinc into the ground and
connecting them to pipelines or standpipes to be protected. Water scientists
have found that in addition to rust formed simply by corrosion, rust can
be formed and deposited by iron-depositing bacteria in the water such
as Sphaerotilus and Gallionella. Iron-depositing bacteria prefer water
high in ferrous iron, which they convert to insoluble ferric hydroxide,
Fe(OH)3, which becomes part of the mucilaginous sheath around the cell.
These deposit on galvanized steel pipes and accelerate corrosion rates,
which produce additional soluble iron, further increasing the population
of iron-depositing bacteria in the system.
The cycle sometimes continues until the whole system is plugged with oxidized
iron deposits or until a pipe becomes rusted all the way through its walls.
The cathodizing function of the SafeWater Softener also causes the Fe(OH)3
to break up into fine colloidal particles and go into suspension. Effects
of the Conditioner on Algae and Fungus/Mildew Growth Catalytic alloy conditioned
water has been found to have noticeable inhibiting effects on algae and
fungus/mildew growth. In addition, it has been observed that chlorine
stays in swimming pool water longer and does not have to be replenished
as often. Chlorine gas dissolved in water hydrolyzes readily according
to the following equation: (1) C12 + H2O --> H+ + C1- + HOCI Hypochlorous
acid (HOCI) is the active microbiocidal ingredient formed by this reaction.
This weak acid tends to undergo partial disassociation as follows: (2)
HOCl --> H+ + OCI- This produces a hydrogen ion and hypochlorite ion.
When the pH exceeds 9.5 in unconditioned water, HOCI completely dissociates
into H+ + OCI-. The toxicity of chlorine is thought to be derived not
from the chlorine itself or its release of nascent oxygen, but rather
from the reaction of the HOCI on the enzyme system of the cell. The superiority
of HOC1 over OCI appears to be due to the small molecular size and the
electrical neutrality of HOCI, which allow it to pass through the cell
membrane.
The
catalytic alloy conditioner decreases the dissociation of HOCI (equation
(2)) by providing additional electrons to the water solution which has
the net effect of inhibiting the rise in the pH of swimming pool water.
This is due to inhibition of the following reaction which occurs at alkalinity
levels above pH 8.4. (3) HCO3 --> H+ + CO32- , where H+ breaks away from
CO32-. These inhibiting effects appear to be due to the net decrease in
oxidation reactions that take place in the conditioned water as compared
to the amount that takes place in nonconditioned water. Oxidation reactions
involve the removal of electrons from elements low on the Electronegativity
Scale and high on the Electromotive Series by elements or radicals at
the opposite polarity. By supplying electrons to the water solution, the
oxidation reactions appear to be inhibited to a significant extent. Another
result of the inhibiting of the dissociation of OCI- from HOCI is that
the chlorine concentration in swimming pools in preserved for longer periods
of time because OCI- is more easily broken down by sunlight than is HOCI.
The
ability of the catalytic alloy conditioner to reduce the gaseous content
of the water solution probably also contributes to inhibition of algae
growth. Algae requires nitrogen as well as phosphorous and sunlight for
growth. By reducing the nitrogen content of the water, the conditioner
reduces the nutrient supply of algae. The reduction of mildew and fungus
growth commonly reported by users of the catalytic alloy conditioner can
be explained by: (1) the increased "sheeting" action of the conditioned
water resulting in faster drying of shower enclosures and sprinkled plant
leaves; (2) reduction of N2 in the water required for fungus and mildew
growth; and (3) a slight increase in cupric sulfate (CuSO4). The addition
of electrons to the water allows more SO4-2 ions to bond ionically with
Cu2+ ions in the water to form CuSO4 which acts as a fungicide.
Summary: The potable water supplied to us is basically electron-deficient
and not in optimum states of equilibrium. In accordance with the electronegativities
of chemical elements and the oxidation potentials of the elements as listed
in the Electronegativity Scale and the Electromotive Series, respectively,
the SafeWater Softener provides electrons to the water solution in a catalytic
manner to reduce electron deficiencies In the water. This enables electrochemical
changes to occur that: (1) inhibit scale and corrosion formation; (2)
dissolve existing scale and corrosion; (3) increase the wetness and cleaning
power of water; (4) decrease the gaseous content of water; (5) break down
and leach away excessive salts from soil; and (6) inhibit algae, fungus,
and mildew growth. Because of the dipolar (cathodic and anodic) nature
of all formed metals, the SafeWater Softener also removes electrons from
some negative ions.
However, the SafeWater Softener provides a significant net increase of
electrons for the ions and colloids in the water solution, resulting in:
(1) inhibition of undesirable oxidation reactions; (2) an increase of
beneficial reduction reactions; and (3) keeping/putting of scale-binding
particles and rust/corrosion particles in colloidal suspension by providing
them with negative charges.
References Blanning, H.K. and Rich, A.D., Boiler Feed and Boiler Water
Softening, Nickerson & Collins Co., Chicago, 1942 Boynton, Robert S.,
Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone, Interscience Publishers,
a division of John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1966 Breck, Donald W., Zeolite Molecular
Sieves, John Wiley & Sons, NY 1974 Briscoe, Herman T., General Chemistry
for Colleges, The Riverside Press, Cambridge, MA, 1949 Campbell, J. Arthur,
Why Do Chemical Reactions Occur?, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 1965 Hulthgren, Ralph, Fundamentals of Physical Metallurgy, Prentice-Hall,
Inc., NJ, 1952 Informatics, Inc., Magnetic Treatment of Water, Informatics,
Inc., Rockville, MD, 1973 (Reproduced by National Technical Information
Service, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Springfield, VA) Kemmer, Frank N. and
McCallion, John, eds., The NALCO Water Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
NY, 1979 Leopold, Luna B. and Davis, Kenneth S., Water, Time Inc., NY,
1966 Manahan, Stanley E., General Applied Chemistry, Willard Grant Press,
Boston, MA, 1978 Mellor, J.W., Mellor's Modern Inorganic Chemistry, Longmans,
Green and Co., Lts., 1967 Pauling, Linus, The Chemical Bond, Cornell University
Press, Ithaca, NY, 1967 Sienko, Michell J. and Plane, Robert A., Chemistry,
McCraw-Hill Book Co., NY, 1971 Weast, Robert C., ea., Handbook of Chemistry
and Physics, CRC Press, OFI, 1977.
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