ELECTROCHEMICAL WATER CONDITIONING

Water treatment technologies in the United States and most other developed countries have evolved to their present levels of sophistication from their early beginnings on the basis of methodologies involving chemical additives that cause desirable reactions to occur in accordance with well-known classical textbook equations or involving ion-exchange and deionization techniques. These water technologies have provided, for the most part, satisfactory results in the industrial world when coupled with relatively complex and extensive maintenance and servicing programs. This success may be the main reason for the virtual absence of scientific research on alternate water treatment approaches.  

Some research, however, has been accomplished on the magnetic treatment of water. The primary initial research in this area has been pursued mostly by European scientists (primarily in Russia) with the bulk of that research being done between 1950 and 1980. Users' field results with magnetic conditioners in Europe and the U.S. have been somewhat inconsistent although there have been many reports of outstanding effectiveness and cost savings. The magnetic treatment effects on water solutions are relatively transient, however, lasting for a maximum of about 72 hours. Water treatment with a patented metallic catalyst has been in successful use since the early 1950's but has only in the last few years been developed to its present state of effectiveness and efficiency.  

The effects of catalytic alloy treatment are considerably more profound and longer lasting than the effects of magnetic water treatment although there appears to be some commonality in the chemical principles that are utilized by both of these methods. There are also effects produced by the catalytic method which are not claimed by manufacturers of the magnetic devices. The 'magnetic method' generates a magnetic field to electromagnetically induce ionic and molecular changes in the water solution. The catalytic alloy method applies the catalytic properties of several different metallic elements to produce electrochemical changes to the ions and molecules in the water through direct contact with these substances in the water solution.  

Many users of the catalytic conditioner prefer it to even soft water conditioners. Soft water conditioners, which use a sodium zeolite resin, have been the most commonly used conditioner in homes and small businesses for hard water treatment. But soft water conditioners are being replaced at increasingly rapid rates because of significant technological and marketing advances that the catalytic conditioner has recently enjoyed. 

The two most common forms of scale consist mainly of:  

1. Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃) (with binders). This forms in hot water heaters, boilers, valves, sinks, shower enclosures, etc.  

2. Rust (in galvanized pipes) or corrosion (in/on copper, brass, aluminum, or chrome).  

In order to understand the process by which the catalytic alloy conditioner inhibits scale buildup (commonly called "lime" or "rust") and the way in which it breaks down and eliminates existing scale, it is necessary to understand the nature of scale and how it is formed.
 

Calcium carbonate, CaCO₃, exists in nature as limestone and marble. Silica (SiO₂), alumina (Al₂O₃), and calcium sulfate (CaSO₄) are principal impurities in limestone and function as binders (cementing agents). Large deposits of magnesium carbonate, MgCO₃, exist in nature with calcium carbonate in the form of dolomite, CaCO₃ . MgCO₃, or as magnesite, MgCO₃. Limestone layers even in high mountainous regions such as the Grand Canyon in Arizona, which has a depth of over one mile, were each formed over millions of years from remains of sea creatures precipitated to the bottom of the ocean where the CaCo₃ contained in these remains combined with silica (SiO₂), alumina (A1₂O₃), and/or clay (SiO₂ . A1₂0₃ . 2 H₂O), which serve as binders. In addition, limestone usually includes some MgCO₃. In the case of the Grand Canyon, scientists have identified at least seven different limestone layers, each containing shells of marine animals, indicating that the region has been covered by at least seven different oceans in its geological history.  

CaCo₃ is only very slightly soluble in water, yet large amounts of calcium become dissolved in most water supplies by the action of rain water on limestone. Rain water is somewhat acidic because as it falls through the atmosphere, it encounters carbon dioxide (CO²) with which it reacts to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) as follows:  

H₂O + CO₂ -> H₂CO₃  

When rain water contacts limestone in the earth, limestone material is dissolved and goes into solution as calcium bicarbonate as follows:  

CaCo₃ + H₂CO₃ -> Ca₂+ + 2 HCO^- 

The carbonic acid ionizes slightly:  

H₂CO <-----> H+ + HCO₃  

Since the ionization constant of HCO3- is very small,  

[H+] x [CO₃ ^2-] KI = [HCO₃^-]  

The addition of H⁺ ions from the carbonic acid reduces the concentration of CO₃^2- (ions that go into solution in the water from the CaCO₃ solid) because the H⁺ ion and the CO₃^2- ion combine to form the slightly ionized bicarbonate ion, HCO₃^-. The reduction of the concentration of the CO₃^2- ion in the solution causes more CaCO₃ to dissolve in the form of Ca²⁺ + 2 HCO₃^- in an attempt to saturate the solution and produce a product of the concentrations of Ca²⁺ and CO₃^2- ions that equals the solubility product.  

[Ca²⁺] x [ CO₃^2-] = K_sp = 1 x 10^-9 at 25^oC  

Surface waters also dissolve carbon dioxide from soils where it is produced by the slow oxidation and decay of organic materials. As these waters contact limestone, the limestone gradually dissolves. Examples of this action are limestone caves and hard waters from wells.  

The Ca²⁺ + 2 HCO₃^- that is dissolved in water very readily converts into CaCO₃ when water is heated to boiling. The solubility of CaCO₃ decreases with increase in temperature and precipitates as CaCO₃ as follows:  

 
                               _heat  
Ca²⁺ + 2 HCO₃^-  -----> CaC0₃ + H₂O + C0₂  

This is the basic reaction that forms the bulk of the 'lime' in water heaters and boilers. This reaction also occurs when water containing Ca(HCO₃)₂ evaporates and leaves a CaCO₃ residue. The above mentioned reactions also apply to magnesium and its bicarbonates and carbonates.  

For example:  

MgCO₃ + H₂CO₃ -----> Mg²⁺ + 2 HCO₃^-  

However, MgCO₃ is appreciably more soluble than CaCO₃.  

[Mg₂⁺] x [CO₃^2-] = K_sp = 1 x 10^-5 at25^oC  

Scientists and engineers who have investigated scale formation in various industrial systems have determined that although CaCO₃ and MgCO₃ form most of the mass of lime-type scale, they require silica (SiO₂), alumina (Al₂0₃), or calcium sulfate (CaSO₄) to act as a binder to hold them in place just as they do in nature.  

CaSO₄ exists in ionized form when dissolved in water as the ions Ca²⁺ and So₄² . The solubility of CaSO₄ increases with temperature up to about 100^oF and then decreases with increasing temperature. Hence, precipitation of CaSO₄ also occurs in water heaters and boilers.  

SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ are not ions but are relatively neutral colloidal residues that are slightly soluble in water. SiO₂ is found in fresh water in a range of 1 -100mg/liter. At high concentrations (over 50 mg/liter), chemical precipitation appears to occur.  

Colloids, including SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and clay (SiO₂ . Al₂O₃ . 2 H₂O), when suspended in water usually carry a negative charge. If these negative charges (extra electrons) are neutralized (extra electrons removed), the colloids coagulate, precipitate, and combine with (i.e., become absorbed by) CaCO₃, MgCO₃, and CaSO₄ to form typical lime scale. The denseness and hardness of the scale increases with increased concentrations of SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and/or CaSO₄.  

Approximately 87 percent of the earth's solid crust consists of silicon compounds. Silica is one of the most abundant compounds of silicon. Aluminum is the most abundant metal and the third most abundant element. The most important ore of aluminum is bauxite, a mixture of hydrated aluminum oxide, Al₂O₃ . 3 H₂O, and iron oxide. Calcium is fifth in abundance of the metals in the earth's crust, of which it forms more than 3 percent. 

The catalytic alloy conditioner consists of many precious and semiprecious metals that form a special electrochemical catalyst. In addition, the core includes multiple venturis configured to prevent flow restriction while providing a high degree of turbulence and increased physical contact between: (1) the ions and molecules in the water; and (2) the core itself, thereby increasing catalytic efficiency.  

All metals give up electrons in their outer atomic shells easily. For this reason, metals are good or excellent electrical conductors. Of all non-radioactive metals, cesium is the least electron acquisitive; it has an-electronegativity of 0.7 on the Electronegativity Scale of the Elements. Gold is the most electron-acquisitive of the metals and has an electronegativity of 2.4 on the Electro negativity Scale. The higher the electronegativity, the more acquisitive the element (atom) is concerning electrons for its outer shell to satisfy its own valence.  

The most aggressive (electron-acquisitive) elements arc the following and are all non-metals.  

ELEMENT AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY:  Fluorine 4.0;  Oxygen   3.5;  Chlorine 3.0;  Nitrogen 3.0; Bromine  2.8;                Carbon 2.5;  Sulfur 2.5;  Iodine 2.5;  Selenium 2.4  

The least aggressive (electron-acquisitive) elements are metals and include:  

ELEMENT AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY Gold 2.4:  Hydrogen  2.1;   Silver 1.9;  Copper 1.9;  Silicon 1.9;  Nickel  1.8 Cadmium 1.7;   Zinc 1.6;  Tantalum 1.5;  Aluminum 1.5;  M anganese 1.5;   Magnesium 1.2;  Calcium 1.0;  Strontium 1.0;  Lithium 1.0;   Sodium 0.9;  Barium 0.9;  Radium 0.9;  Rubidium 0.8;  Potassium 0.8;  Cesium 0.7  

Other common elements range in electronegativity between these high and low groups. The greater the separation of two elements on the Electronegativity Scale, the greater is the strength of the bond between these two elements.  

The electronegativity of the core alloy is less than the overall electronegativity of the water solution. Therefore, the core loses (gives up) more electrons than it acquires to elements such as hydrogen (H+) ions which have an electronegativity of 2.1 and to ionic compounds (radicals) such as SO₄^2- and CO₃^2- which have higher electronegativities than the core alloy.  

The relatively large distances between the nucleus and the electrons of atoms have been described as follows: If an atom were as large as a house, its nucleus (which is positively charged) would be about the size of the period at the end of this sentence, or a pin head, and its outer-shell electron orbits would be out where the walls of the house are.  

The electrons (which are negatively charged) would be smaller than specks of dust that float in the air. When bonded with another atom(s), the outer orbital shell is pulled out into an egg shape even beyond the boundaries of the walls of the house because of the attraction of the other atom(s).  

When water is in the form of ice, the molecules and ions in it are held in a relatively rigid pattern. But in the liquid state, this structure becomes a dynamic, whirling, chaotic dance in which groups of molecules and ions in the solution take turns whirling about one another, breaking their bonds, and finding new groups to find partners with. When water rushes through the catalytic alloy conditioner, the pattern becomes even more frenetic; and electron orbits and associated bondings undergo increased perturbations and stresses, and additional electrons from the core are attracted into the water solution.  

The loss of electrons by the catalytic alloy condiotioner to the water solution is easily verifiable by: (1) adapting a catalytic alloy conditioner to a garden hose; (2) turning on the hose faucet; (3) connecting the positive lead of a multimeter to the conditioner core; (4) inserting the negative lead probe into the water stream; and (5) observing a voltage drop.  The fact that the conditioner goes positive with respect to the outlet water stream indicates that electrons are being removed from the catalytic alloy conditioner by the water solution as it flows through the core. 

 The electronegativities of various elements were listed to previously to indicate their relative potentials or dispositions regarding electron acquisitiveness. Electron acquisitiveness can be regarded as "reduction potential." Reduction of an clement occurs when its valence becomes more negative (or less positive); for example, in the reaction  

e^-+ Cl₂ + H₂O <-----> HOCl^- + Cl^- + H⁺  

one atom of Cl² is reduced to Cl^-.   Oxidation, which is the opposite of reduction, occurs to an element when its valence becomes more positive (or less negative); for example, in the reaction  

2 Cl^- --> Cl^{2 +} 2e^-  

2 Cl^- is oxidized to 2 Cl^o to provide chlorine gas plus two electrons which are available (or can be made available) for reduction of another substance in the solution or circuit.  

The Electromotive Series is a listing of elements and compounds rank-ordered according to their oxidation potentials or dispositions regarding electron relinquishment (or their tendency to lose electrons). The higher or more positive the oxidation potential of an element, the better the element is as a reducing agent. The following is a partial listing of the Electromotive Series.  

OXIDATION POTENTIAL (VOLTS) AT 1 MOLE CONCENTRATION Li^o --> LI⁺ + e (+3.05);  Ca^o --> Ca²+ 2e (+2.76);  Na^o --> Na⁺ + e^- (+2.71);   Mg^o --> Mg²⁺+ 2e^- (+2.37);  Al^o --> Al³⁺ + 3e (+1.66);            Zn^o --> Zn²⁺ + 2e^- (+0.76);  Fe^o --> Fe²⁺ + 2e^- (+0.4 4)  
H₂ + 2 H₂O --> 2 H₃O+ 2e^- (0.0)   
Cu^o --> Cu²⁺ + 2e^- (-0.34); 2I^- --> I₂ + 2e^- (-0.54);    Ag^o --> Ag⁺ + e^- (-0.80);    Hg^o --> Hg²⁺ 2e^- (-1.09);   6 H₂O --> O² + 4 H₃O  + 4e^- (-1.23);   2 Cl^- --> Cl₂ + 2e^- (-1.36);   2 F^- --> F₂ + 2e^-  (-2.87)  

The Electromotive Series and the Electronegativity listings provide fundamental frames of reference and some insight into: (1) the many ways in which the elements can interact with each other; (2) why they interact as they do; (3) under what conditions changes or reactions will occur or will not occur; and (4) the reasons that metals can function as catalytic water conditioning agents.  

Electrons are drawn into the water solution because the solution contains ions that are more electronegative than the catalytic alloy core is. Or in terms of the Electromotive Series, the catalytic alloy conditioner core contains elements which have higher oxidation>n potentials than ions in the water solution. As the water flows through the catalytic alloy coditioner, some of the electrons drawn into the solution displace some already captured by ions such as CO₃^2-, HCO₃^-, SO₄^2-, and OCI^- during the turbulent orbitings of the various electrons. This allows the "displaced" electrons to become "free electrons" in the solution and these "free electrons" can be captured by ions or colloids with lesser electronegativities such as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ to free themselves of CO₃^2-, SO₄^2-, and HCO₃^-, and assume their neutral atomic structures (Ca^o and Mg^o) and break away from their ionic bonds while in solution or from lattice scale bonds in cases where they arc in solid precipitated or scale form. The inbonds in cases where they are in solid precipitated or scale form. The increased electron count in the water also inhibits the breakdown of the bicarbonate ion into H⁺ and        CO₃^2- when heater in water heaters and boilers or when alkalinity reaches Levels above pH 8.4.  

By acquiring or reacquiring a negative charge, colloidal substances such as silica, alumina, and rust particles remain in suspension instead of becoming absorbed onto calcium, magnesium, and iron ions; the acquisition of the negative charge also causes these colloidal substances to be repelled from these ions in the flowing water if they were already absorbed onto them. This separation inhibits the hardness effects of these three ions; hardness in water is always due to the presence of Ca⁺, Mg²⁺, and/or Fe²⁺ ions.  

The silica and alumina are also able to escape from existing scale lattices to which they have been absorbed and for which they have been functioning as finders. Thus, the scale lattices are gradually broken down and eliminated by the escaping Ca^o and Mg^o elements and negatively charged SiO₂(-) and A1₂O₃(-) colloids.  

The inhibiting effects of the catalytic alloy conditioner on scale formation can be summarized as follows:  
(1) Ca²⁺ + 2e^--->  Ca^o ;  
(2) Mg²⁺ + 2e^---> Mg^o ;   
(3) xSiO₂ + xe^-   --> xSiO₂(-);    
(4) xAl₂O₃ +xe^---> xAl₂O₃ (-);  
(5) xFe₂O₃ + xe^---> xFe₂O₃ (-); 
(6) 2 HCO^-₃ + xe^{- heat>}-> 2 HCO^-₃ + xe^- (inhibition of the CO₃^2- + H₂O + CO₂ reaction)

The inhibiting effects in heaters and boilers can be summarized as follows:

(7) Ca^o + 2 HCO₃^-  heat_> Ca_ + H₂O + 2 CO²  
(8) 2 CO₃^2-  heat_> 2 CO₂ + O₂ + 4e^-  
(9) 2 HCO^-₃ + xe^- heat_>2 HCO^-₃ + xe^- (inhibition of the CO₃^2- + H2O + CO2 reaction)
(10) Al₂0₃ (-) + SiO₂(-)  heat_> Al₂O_3- + Si0₂(-) (remain in suspension as colloids)  
(11) Ca^o + SO₄^2-  heat_> Ca^o + S0₄^2- (precipitation of CaSO₄ is inhibited)  
(12) Fe₂O₃(-)   heat_> Fe₂O₃(-)   (Remains in suspension as a colloid)  

The scale dissolving effects in water heaters, boilers, pipes, valves, and other plumbing or agricultural irrigation components are summarized by the following simplified equation:  

(13) CaCO₃ . CaSO₄ . SiO² . MgCO₃ . A1₂O₃ . Fe₂O₃ + 9e^- ----> 2 Ca^o + Mg^o + 2 CO₃^2- + SO₄^2- + SiO₂(-) + Al₂O₃ (-) + Fe₂O₃(-)  

The acquisition of one or two electrons by a calcium ion (Ca²⁺) will immediately cause other substances to bond with it. A typical reaction is:  
(14) q Ca^o + r Ca(+) + s H₂O  --> t Ca(OH)₂ + u Ca(OH)⁺ + v H⁺,  
where the H⁺ and OH^- ions are derived from H₂O molecules. The H⁺ ions arc very useful in the breaking down of calcium carbonate.  
If small or weak concentrations of the hydrogen ions are added to the water solution, carbonate ions are removed by the formation of bicarbonate ions.  
(15) H⁺  CO₃^2- --> HCO₃^-  
The bicarbonate ions are then decomposed by the hydrogen ions as follows:  
(16) H⁺  HCO₃^- --> H₂O + CO²  
The Ca(OH)⁺ formed in equation (14) will probably bond with an electronegative ion or radical, or with a colloid with a negative charge, but will probably remain in solution instead of forming part of a precipitate. The Ca(OH)₂ formed in equation (14) tends to precipitate but its solubility is approximately 40 times greater than that of CaCO₃. Hence, in view of the relatively slow rates at which the Ca^o and Ca(⁺) is formed, and the proportionally slow rates at which the Ca(OH)₂ are formed, it is highly unlikely the concentration of Ca(OH)₂ in water heaters and boilers (and even in cold water circuits) will reach levels where precipitation will occur.  
The solubility of Ca(OH)₂ at 100^oC is 0.77 gram per liter; for CaCO₃ it is 0.0190 gram per liter at 75^oC. At 25^oC the solubility of Ca(OH)₂ is 1.85 grams per liter; for CaCO₃ it is 0.0153 gram per liter at 25^oC.  
Conditioned water that has dried on surfaces exposed to air will leave water spots due to the minerals in the water Oust as soft water conditioners will leave sodium spots), but these spots are easily removed with a damp cloth and do not leave hard water stains. This is due to the neutralization of the scale binders and the calcium and magnesium as indicated in equations (1) through (5) above.  
In zeolite water softeners, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions in the water are exchanged for Na⁺ ions (absorbed onto the zeolite) that are released and rush into the water solution as the water passes through the zeolite. Interestingly, zeolite consists of an aluminum-silicon-oxygen compound to which Ca and Mg are absorbed until flushed away during the recharging cycle while the catalytic alloy conditioner supplies negative charges to SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ colloids in order to keep them in suspension and to keep them from becoming absorbed onto calcium and magnesium compounds and functioning as scale binders.  

Ca^o and Mg^o readily oxidize in air to form CaO, MgO, Ca₃N₂, and Mg₃N₂, but these compounds are easily wiped off. The thin, waxy, shiny, protective, water-repellent finish that forms and is noticeable on chrome and mirrors after the catalytic alloy conditioned water is wiped off of these surfaces is a combination of various forms of calcium and magnesium compounds together with colloidal alumina and silica and is a welcome by-product of the   conditioner.  

Water (H₂O) molecules are excellent electrical insulators; and for this reason, at the low-voltage levels at which these catalytic actions and reactions occur, most of the electrons that are transferred from the catalytic alloy conditioner to the ions and colloids in the water remain in the solution instead of escaping back to earth ground. Consequently, most of the additional electrons transferred from earth ground via the conditioner core to the water solution stay in the solution and are able to provide the negative charges necessary for preventing scale from forming and for decomposing existing scale.  

Another important benefit resulting from the negative charging of the colloidal substances such as silica, alumina, and clay is that these substances form a negatively charged microscopic coating on surfaces such as glass, windows, chrome, porcelain, tile, enamel, lacquer, etc. This coating becomes very evident on surfaces such as mirrors and chrome faucets, on which residue from evaporated water is easily wiped off with a damp cloth, leaving a sparkling, wax-like, polished surface finish as mentioned in Section 3.5. Other examples of the effects of these negatively charged colloids is the way toilet bowls stay "ring free" and the way shower enclosures stay cleaner much longer.  

In addition to these effects on external surfaces, the increased negativity provided to water solutions keeps soap scum particles in colloidal suspension in the water, inhibiting precipitation of soap scum and formation of "bathtub ring" when regular soap is used instead of detergent-type soap such as Zest. Detergents do not react with calcium to form soap scum but do leave residues with unconditioned waters. Scum and residue that do collect on bathtub or other surfaces are very easily rinsed off with fresh water and also easily go back into colloidal suspension in the same water when the water is splashed on the scum or residue before it is allowed to dry.  

Another effect and benefit of the additional electrons in the water solution is the reduction in hydrogen bonding between H₂O molecules. H₂O molecules link up to each other because of the dipole nature of the individual H₂O molecules. The additional negative charges in the solution reduce the bonding of the oxygen atoms of H₂O molecules and the hydrogen atoms of other H₂O molecules (i.e., hydrogen atoms other than those in their own molecules) by supplying the negative charges (electrons) that the oxygen atoms attract. As a result, there are less hydrogen bonds between the individual H₂O molecules. This results in "wetter water," which in turn results in better cleaning water and better soil-leaching water. The breaking up of the H₂O groupings into smaller groupings, because of the decrease in hydrogen bonding, enables soap and detergent to break up into smaller groupings and interface with the smaller H₂O groupings. This results in a greatly increased surface area that can come in contact with grease, oil, dirt, and other contaminants in wash water. The surface area increases exponentially with decreases in the size of the groupings. Consequently, soap, detergents, and shampoos become more efficient and considerably less amounts are required when used with the conditioned water. Typically, people who require two shampooings with unconditioned water require only one shampooing with the conditioned water.  

The wetter water also penetrates soil better and faster than unconditioned water. In addition, the increased wetness is supplemented by the salt and scale-dissolving properties of the electron rich water. This results in more effective breaking down and leaching away of the salts accumulated in the soil. Excessive salinity in the root zones in the soil is the primary cause of tip burn in plant and tree leaves. The excessive amounts of salts on and around the roots result in oxidation and reduction reactions that cause certain elements and compounds to be over-absorbed by plant roots and others, that are required for normal health, to be under-absorbed or not absorbed at all.  

All other things being equal, the decrease in surface tension due to the decrease in hydrogen bonding of the water molecules reduces the boiling point of water. However, microwave oven tests conducted on equal amounts of conditioned and unconditioned water sometimes show that the boiling point of the conditioned water sample is higher than that of the unconditioned water sample. This apparent paradox can be explained when it is remembered that the gaseous content of the conditioned water is reduced by the catlytic alloy conditioner. This can result in an increase in the molecular weight of the water for the given volume. According to the van der Waals Attraction Principle, which is used to explain differences in boiling points of different substances, normal molecular substances with larger molecular weight have higher boiling points than those with smaller molecular weight. However, after the unconditioned water is boiled and most of its gases are driven out by the heating, its boiling point will usually be higher because its hydrogen bonding is greater than that of the conditioned water. Results can also vary if the conditioned and the unconditioned water samples are drawn from different homes on the same street and have different amounts of dissolved solids, as when a  catalytic alloy conditioner has been installed and in use in a home for several weeks and has reduced the amount of solids in the water sample contributed by the scale in the plumbing in the house. In any event,  conditioned water characteristically boils in a steadier, smoother pattern with smaller, more uniform-sized bubbles than does unconditioned water, thereby demonstrating another effect that decreased hydrogen bonding has on water.  

Every metal surface contains many small anodes and cathodes. These opposite-polarity sites are caused by: (1 ) surface irregularities resulting from forming, extruding, casting, or other fabrication processes; (2) stresses from welding, forming, or other operations; and/or (3) differences in the materials of which the metal or alloy is composed. Because the core alloy of the SafeWater Softener consists of many different metals specially proportioned and processed, and because the core is formed by casting and has relatively rough surfaces, the quantity and power of the anodic and cathodic points have been maximized by the above-mentioned causes (1) and (3). The conditioner core contains thousands of cathodes which supply electrons to positively charged ions in the water (such as H⁺) but also contains thousands of anodes that remove electrons from negative ions such as Cl^-, allowing them to gather together as neutral gases such as Cl². However, more electrons are supplied by the core to the water solution than are removed from the solution because the core, being metallic, is more electropositive than is the water solution. 

The anodes and cathodes on certain metal surfaces also cause anodic and cathodic reactions that result in typical rusting or corrosion of these surfaces in plumbing systems. However, the conditioner core alloy is nonferrous and highly resistant to rusting and corrosion. 

The turbulence resulting from the water rushing through the conditioner core facilitates the removal of gases by increasing the probabilities of gaseous elements such as Cl^o and N^o contacting other like elements and forming Cl² gas and N² gas, respectively. It should be noted that Cl² (chlorine gas) is 2.49 times as heavy as air, however, and therefore will not rise up into the air at ordinary temperatures. For this reason, chlorine can more easily be smelled in a container only partly filled with chlorinated water conditioned by a catalytic conditioner than in the case where the container is filled with the water to overflowing.  

Rust is a type of corrosion involving the special case of iron. Rust formation requires three electrochemical steps:  
1. Loss of metal occurs at the anodic area (anode) of the surface. In the case of iron, iron (Fe^o) is lost to the water solution and becomes oxidized to Fe²⁺ ion.  
2. As a result of the formation of Fe²⁺, two electrons are released from the Fe atom and flow through the steel to a cathodic area (cathode).  
3. Oxygen (O²) in the water solution moves to the cathode and completes the electric circuit by using the two electrons that moved to the cathode to form hydroxyl ions (OH^-) at the cathode area. The reactions are as follows:  
(1) Anodic reaction: Fe^o --> Fe^o + 2e
(2) Cathodic reaction: 1/2  O² + H₂O + 2e^---> 2(0H^-)
(3) or e^- + H⁺ --> H^o  
If oxygen is absent, hydrogen ions (H⁺) participate in the reaction (equation (3) at the cathode instead of oxygen and completes the electrical circuit).  
      The Fe²⁺ and OH^- ions combine to form ferrous hydroxide as follows:  
(4) Fe²⁺ + 2 OH^-  --> Fe(OH)²  
      Rust is formed when Fe(OH)2 is oxidized:  
(5) 2 Fe(OH)² + 1/2  O²  --> Fe₂O₃ . 2 H₂O  

Corrosion is inhibited if the iron is made more negative compared to its surroundings, forcing the anode areas to act as cathodes. This is accomplished by the attraction of some of the extra electrons in the water solution (supplied by the conditioner) onto the anodic areas, thereby preventing the ionization of the Fe atoms. The additional electrons also dissolve rust by breaking it into fine colloidal particles.  

In a similar manner, corrosion is also inhibited and dissolved for metals other than iron such as brass and aluminum.  

It is interesting to note that the addition of electrons to anodic areas in order to prevent corrosion has been accomplished by other means in industry. This method has been called "cathodic protection." Zinc plating is one example of this method of cathodic protection since zinc has a higher oxidation potential than iron and forces electrons onto the iron. Cathodic protection has also been obtained by driving stakes of magnesium or zinc into the ground and connecting them to pipelines or standpipes to be protected.  

Water scientists have found that in addition to rust formed simply by corrosion, rust can be formed and deposited by iron-depositing bacteria in the water such as Sphaerotilus and Gallionella. Iron-depositing bacteria prefer water high in ferrous iron, which they convert to insoluble ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)₃, which becomes part of the mucilaginous sheath around the cell. These deposit on galvanized steel pipes and accelerate corrosion rates, which produce additional soluble iron, further increasing the population of iron-depositing bacteria in the system. The cycle sometimes continues until the whole system is plugged with oxidized iron deposits or until a pipe becomes rusted all the way through its walls. The cathodizing function of the SafeWater Softener also causes the Fe(OH)₃ to break up into fine colloidal particles and go into suspension.  

Catalytic alloy  conditioned water has been found to have noticeable inhibiting effects on algae and fungus/mildew growth. In addition, it has been observed that chlorine stays in swimming pool water longer and does not have to be replenished as often.  
Chlorine gas dissolved in water hydrolyzes readily according to the following equation:  
(1) C1² + H2O --> H⁺ + C1^- + HOCI  
Hypochlorous acid (HOCI) is the active microbiocidal ingredient formed by this reaction. This weak acid tends to undergo partial disassociation as follows:  
(2) HOCl  --> H⁺ + OCI^-  
This produces a hydrogen ion and hypochlorite ion. When the pH exceeds 9.5 in unconditioned water, HOCI completely dissociates into H⁺ + OCI^-.  
The toxicity of chlorine is thought to be derived not from the chlorine itself or its release of nascent oxygen, but rather from the reaction of the HOCI on the enzyme system of the cell. The superiority of HOC1 over OCI appears to be due to the small molecular size and the electrical neutrality of HOCI, which allow it to pass through the cell membrane.  
The catalytic alloy conditioner decreases the dissociation of HOCI (equation (2)) by providing additional electrons to the water solution which has the net effect of inhibiting the rise in the pH of swimming pool water. This is due to inhibition of the following reaction which occurs at alkalinity levels above pH 8.4.  
(3) HCO₃ --> H⁺ + CO₃^2- ,  
where H+ breaks away from CO₃^2-. These inhibiting effects appear to be due to the net decrease in oxidation reactions that take place in the conditioned water as compared to the amount that takes place in nonconditioned water. Oxidation reactions involve the removal of electrons from elements low on the Electronegativity Scale and high on the Electromotive Series by elements or radicals at the opposite polarity. By supplying electrons to the water solution, the oxidation reactions appear to be inhibited to a significant extent.  
Another result of the inhibiting of the dissociation of OCI- from HOCI is that the chlorine concentration in swimming pools in preserved for longer periods of time because OCI- is more easily broken down by sunlight than is HOCI.  
The ability of the catalytic alloy conditioner to reduce the gaseous content of the water solution probably also contributes to inhibition of algae growth. Algae requires nitrogen as well as phosphorous and sunlight for growth. By reducing the nitrogen content of the water, the conditioner reduces the nutrient supply of algae.  

The reduction of mildew and fungus growth commonly reported by users of the catalytic alloy conditioner can be explained by: (1) the increased "sheeting" action of the conditioned water resulting in faster drying of shower enclosures and sprinkled plant leaves; (2) reduction of N₂ in the water required for fungus and mildew growth; and (3) a slight increase in cupric sulfate (CuSO₄).   The addition of electrons to the water allows more SO₄-² 
ions to bond ionically with Cu²⁺ ions in the water to form CuSO₄ which acts as a fungicide.

The potable water supplied to us is basically electron-deficient and not in optimum states of equilibrium. In accordance with the electronegativities of chemical elements and the oxidation potentials of the elements as listed in the Electronegativity Scale and the Electromotive Series, respectively, the SafeWater Softener provides electrons to the water solution in a catalytic manner to reduce electron deficiencies In the water. This enables electrochemical changes to occur that: (1) inhibit scale and corrosion formation; (2) dissolve existing scale and corrosion; (3) increase the wetness and cleaning power of water; (4) decrease the gaseous content of water; (5) break down and leach away excessive salts from soil; and (6) inhibit algae, fungus, and mildew growth. Because of the dipolar (cathodic and anodic) nature of all formed metals, the SafeWater Softener also removes electrons from some negative ions. However, the SafeWater Softener provides a significant net increase of electrons for the ions and colloids in the water solution, resulting in: (1) inhibition of undesirable oxidation reactions; (2) an increase of beneficial reduction reactions; and (3) keeping/putting of scale-binding particles and rust/corrosion particles in colloidal suspension by providing them with negative charges.  

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